Marriage in African Traditional Society

Marriage in African Traditional Society Marriage is an important step in the life of every human on earth. Different cultures have different rituals and beliefs about marriage. Love, economic status, religious beliefs, and social acceptance are just a few reasons individuals marry across differing cultures. To understand various form of marriages among the Kenyan societies and specifically the Akamba, we shall look at length the systems of marriages that existed. Kenyan culture is very diverse and full of tradition based on social norms that have been around for generations. Social life is patterned around a strong clan and extended family ties. This plays a vital role in the marriage process. Kenyans attempt to maximize rewards and minimize costs. This is done by comparing what one gives up compared to what they receive in marriage. A husband may receive social status, sexual enhancement, increased labor, and the knowledge that his blood-line will continue, while giving up some sort of economic compensation to the family of the wife. The wife may receive resources, adult status as a wife, and protection in return for her labor and obedience to her husband. Marriage is a recognized union of a man and a woman as husband and wife, a union that is intended to last their joint lives. Mutisya(2004) cites a case of Rex vs Amkeyo, the then Chief Justice, Sir Robert Hamilton, that stated: In my opinion, the use of the word marriage to describe the relationship entered into by an African native with a woman of his tribe according to tribal custom is a misnomer that has led in the past to a considerable confusion of ideas the element of a so-called marriage by native custom differs so materially from the ordinary accepted idea of what constitutes a civilized form of marriage that it is difficult to compare the two. However, in the African mind, it is considered as a serious affair and one that demands high commitment. There are no half-measures in Akamba marriages. A man who engages in dubious marital relationships is a mutuanya, a vagabond despised by everyone in the community. Likewise, a woman without a proper husband is referred to as a mukoma nthi, one who sleeps on the floor, a person of no fixed abode. Among the Akamba, a virgin bride brought shame to her family; her virginity was an indication of ill preparation before marriage, therefore young women were ritually deflowered by elder men from whom they received sexual teachings. In the same vein, pre-marital sex was permitted for both boys and girls to prepare them adequately for their conjugal responsibilities in marriage. Among the Akamba, marriage had the specific purpose of perpetuating ones lineage and in the process, bestowing social status on the man and his wife. When a boy and girl came to a secret agreement that they were in love and wanted to marry, upon agreement, the young mans father would approach the girls parents on the matter. This was followed by the first sign of sealing an in-law relationship uthoni with two goats mbui sya ntheo. The young suitor then prepared the best beer uki, which was taken to the girls father, followed by a negotiation on the bride-wealth. The Akamba married woman was more or less the head of the family in the long run, since the husband had little control over her in the day to day management. If such a freedom to manage the home was absent, the husband had the danger of his wife becoming exasperated and running away. At all costs, the husband had to avoid such situations of a wife running back to her parents, because he would definitely not recover the dowry he gave to her parents, which could only happen if his former wife re-married. In the case of re-marriage, the new husband was obliged to refund the entire dowry paid to the former husband. In the final analysis what this system did was to reduce exceedingly the number of divorce cases. The Akamba men were socialized to worship physical power fighting, cattle raiding, and so on. The women maintained a closely guarded culture of oppression in which men were excluded from all intellectual activities. The mens only tasks were to raid cattle and guard the community. When they were not doing that, they were allowed to spend their time drinking beer or socializing. They were excluded from all creative activities where thought and tact would have been necessary. In deed, even in worshiping Mulungu the Akamba God, the men were excluded. The women had their own well organized religion called Kathambi. Their goddess, Kathambi, is the goddess of rain and fertility. The women associated rain and fertility with womanhood. And since men dont give birth or menstruate, they were deemed incapable of communicating with Mulungu. The congregation of Kathambi worshiping women was called Ngolano and the congregation was led by woman priestesses (who had stopped menstruating and giving birth) in shrines called mathembo, composed of thick forests or huge trees. Ghost Wives (Mulewa) Mulewa Muthiani goes about her business just like any other widowed woman in her village in Ukambani. But there is one difference between her and normal widows Mulewa never met her husband. In fact, she was married to him after he died, about 30 years ago. Mulewa is what is referred to in Ukambani as a ghost wife. And while she never set eyes on Muthiani, her husband, she knows for a fact that he once lived, and even if now long dead, he continues to live as a spirit. This she knows because when she was being married, her mother in-law, Muthoni who died in 1992 told her that she was being married to bear children for Muthonis son, Muthiani, who died in early childhood. Yes, she has children five in fact who were fathered by different men and who bear her dead husbands name. Stanely Kimanga. It was considered highly important for every Akamba man to be married because it was his wife and children that would guarantee keeping his memory beyond his death. If an Akamba man died before marriage, the father arranged to obtain a wife (Mulewa) for the dead son. Such a girl was married to the name of the dead unmarried man and bore him children, usually by his brother (cf. Middleton, p. 90). In 1967 C. W .Hobley wrote in Bantu Beliefs and Magic: There is a curious custom in Ukambani If a young unmarried man is killed away from his village, his Imu or spirit will return there and speak to the people through the medium of an old woman in a dance and say: I am so-and- so speaking, and I want a wife. The youths father will then make arrangements to buy a girl from another village and bring her to his, and she will be mentioned as the wife of the deceased, speaking of him by name Among the Akamba, a woman could be married to a man who was long dead and such a woman was called Mulewa ghost wife. Athough the ghost wife never met her husband, she knew he once lived and continued to live as a spirit. Mulewa was therefore expected to bear children for her dead husband by sleeping with other men. The ghost wife cultural practice also catered for male children who died in infancy. The bereaved mother counted the years until the dead baby would have reached marriageable age, then she would find him a bride. Before a girl was identified to be a ghost wife, there had to be evidence that she had already produced a son. The continuation of the dead mans lineage and that of his father was of prime importance. Even if daughters remained at home and produced children, they were not perceived as continuing the lineage of their maternal grandfather because kinship in the Akamba community was patrilineal and the children of daughters would not belong to the same clan as their grandfather. A ghost wife was accorded the privileges of a normal wife and her right of inheritance was protected and she received what her dead husband would have received from his parents. Woman-to-Woman Marriage (Iweto) The practice of women marrying women is somewhat common in certain societies in West Africa, Southern Africa, East Africa, and the Sudan. Yet, besides a total lack of discussion in the popular media, what is typically called woman-woman marriage is the subject of a very small body of academic literature. Cross-culturally, women take wives under three circumstances, all of which increase the status of the female husband: 1) barren women and widows take wives to obtain rights over children produced; 2) rich women accumulate wives to gain prestige and wealth in the same way men do through polygyny; and 3) in some societies where women have the right to have a daughter-in-law, women without sons can exercise their right to a daughter-in-law by marrying a woman and giving her to a non-existent son. In each of these situations, African women are able to manipulate the existing system through woman-to-woman marriage in order to achieve higher social and economic status. Woman-to-woman marriage can also be beneficial to persons other than the female husband. Woman-to-woman marriage involves the following persons: 1) the female husband herself; 2) if the female husband is already married, her own husband (the female husbands husband); 3) the woman who is married by the female husband the wife; and 4) the lover(s) of the wife who may father her children. To obtain a full understanding of the topic, it is important to examine the motivations not only of the wife, but also those of the wifes lover(s) and the husband (if any) of the female husband. The Akamba practiced woman-to-woman marriage (Gynegamy) known as Iweto All ceremonial aspects of this marriage were observed, bride-wealth was paid to the girls father, and all rules of divorce applicable in the Akamba community were adhered to. This marriage involved one woman marrying another woman, thus assuming control over her and her offspring. The Akamba female husbands resorted to this form of marriage to further their social and economic positions in society. Barren women and widows took wives to obtain rights over children produced. Rich Akamba women accumulated wives to gain prestige and wealth in the same way men do through polygamy. The Akamba women who had no sons exercised their right to a daughter-in-law by marrying a woman and giving her to a non-existent son. The Akamba allowed a woman who had no sons to marry another woman. This was usually after widowhood, but could also be during the husbands lifetime. The bride worked for and looked after the elderly woman she had married but was free to choose male partners as she pleased, since the purpose for her union with the elderly woman was to have sons. Any children born belonged to the family group, and the sons would inherit the property. Among the Akamba it was and still is the wifes duty to provide food for the family from the family cultivated land. The wife could ask for divorce if the plot of land was too small and the husband refused to negotiate a larger piece of land (cf. Penwill, pp. 15-18). Christian view of both types of Marriages In traditional thinking, ancestors are an essential link in a hierarchical chain of powers stretching from this world to the spirit world. Insofar as African traditional religion can be defined by specific religious actions, the cult of the ancestors is its most common and essential activity. In order to understand the importance of ancestors one must realize that in the African view, death is not thought to end human relationships. Rather, those who die enter the spirit world in which they are invisible. Deceased ancestors are integral to the traditional African social structure. In a culture where tribe, clan and family are of utmost importance, ancestors are the most respected members of the family. To be cut off from relationships with ones ancestors is to cease to be a whole person. Moreover, the ancestors sanction societys customs, norms and ethics. Without them, Africans are left without moral guidelines or motivation, and society is powerless to enforce ethics. However, the bible is clear on when should a union between a woman and a man end, in case of the ghost marriages. A wife is bound as long as her husband lives; but if her husband is dead, she is free to be married to whom she wishes, only in the Lord.( 1st Corithians 7:39). This outlaws the connection in matrimony between the dead and the alive. It also cautions against tokenism where one worships a dead person. It is through Christ that all that have died will rise again. However, woman to woman marriages of Ukambbani are not same with lesbianism. It was a place to take care of each other and involved no or little sexual intimacy. Christian teachings prohibit marriage and sexual activities between same genders but encourage people to take good care of each other. ( 1st John 3:16). It was love that guided these relationships. References Cited Cadigan, R. Jean (1998), Woman-to-woman marriage: practices and benefits in Sub-Saharan Africa. Comparative Perspectives on Black Family Life. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, vol 1 Dundas, C. (1913), History of Kitui, Journal of Royal Anthropological Institute, Vol 43 pp480-549. Kimanga, S. (6 October 2004), The ghost wives of Ukambani, All Africa News, http://allafrica.com/stories/200410060072.html, Accessed 18th July 2010 Lindblom, G., (1969.) The Akamba in British East Africa, 2nd Edition, New York: Negro University Press. Middleton, J. (1953), The Central Tribes of the North-Eastern Bantu, London: International African Institute. New International Version, Holy Bible Penwill, D.J., (1951), Kamba Customary Law, London: Macmillan and Company. Roy M,M. (2004), Akamba Marriage Customs. Nairobi: Roma Publishers Limited. Mueni, E. (2010) Personal interview (0726 43-0331) Terry, M. (2010) Personal Interview (0721- 738524)

Tour de France Drug Abuse Essay -- Substance Abuse Essays

The question of drug use among athletes in what was previously considered by the unknowing public to be a rather pristine sport, cycling, is important in that it will affect all future Tours and will place them and the athletes under scrutiny. To begin with, in Europe until the 1998 scandal occurred, despite a few exceptions, cycling was considered a drug free sport. The 1998 drug scandal tarnished the Tour de France and the reputation and image of other sports. The media response to the scandal took differing positions on what should be done next to clean up cycling. The scandal also affected advertisements, sales, and without question the 1999 Tour and Lance Armstrong. Since even the most naà ¯ve fan no longer trusts the cyclists, drug-testing procedures have been instituted. Also, the question now arises regarding medications used by seriously ill cyclists. Certainly, future Tours will be significantly affected. The Union Cycliste Internationale and other sports officials are left with several burning questions; do they seek a better testing system? Clearly, they must protect athletes and the image of sports even though it is costly. Do they perform uniform versus random drug tests? Both are necessary to keep athletes and trainers accountable. In fact, the 1999 Tour promoted both forms of testing (Fife 208). If they do random tests, how do they enforce them? On this point, committees and sports federations are still debating. For years cycling, a grueling, yet glamorous sport in Europe, has been fighting drug use and abuse. Despite a few exceptions, cycling had the reputation, in Europe and in France, of being a clean, pure sport, compared to others, until the 1998 scandal occurred. The question of drug use among athletes in what was previously considered by the unknowing public to be a rather pristine sport, cycling, is important in that it will affect all future Tours and will place them and the athletes under scrutiny. A Clean Reputation: The History of Drugs in the â€Å"Tour de France† In 1967, Tommy Simpson, a British cyclist, died during the Tour de France because of the amphetamines that he took. Succeeding years brought embarrassments: In 1978, the Belgian Michel Pollentier was suspended while leading the Tour de France after he was caught concealing a clean urine sample to trick testers. Furthermore, in 1988, the Spaniard Pedro Delgado won the T... ...cess Story: Tour de Lance; Armstrong’s miraculous comeback from cancer to a Tour victory is worthy of an exclamation point, not a question mark.† The Los Angeles Times; Los Angeles, Calif.; 26 Jul. 1999: 1. Lemonick, Michael D. â€Å"Le Tour des drugs.† Time; New York; Aug 10, 1998: 76. MacAuley, Domhnall. â€Å"Drugs in Sport.† BMJ: British Medical Journal, 313.7051, 7/27/96, 211. Online. EBSCOhost. 16 Nov. 1999. http://www.EBSCOhost.com. Neff, Craig. â€Å"Drug sweep.† Sports Illustrated; New York, 9 Aug. 1999: 71 Pelkey, Charles ed. â€Å"Etxebarria takes Pau; Armstrong answers drug charge.† Velo-News, 21 July 1999. Phillips, Ian. â€Å"Armstrong Extends Tour Lead U.S. Star Bristles at French Media’s Drug Innuendos.† Seattle Post- Intelligencer; Seattle, Wash.; 15 Jul. 1999: E2. Velo-News. The sensational 1998 Tour de France: Conquests and Crisis. Boulder, Colorado: VeloPress, December, 1998. â€Å"Virenque admits to seeking drugs.† Velo-News Interactive. Velo-News; 11 May 1999. â€Å"Virenque released after admission.† Velo-News Interactive. Velo-News, 11 May 1999. Wilson, Stephen. â€Å"Doping Incidents Shake Sports from Swimming to Track & Field.† Seattle Post- Intelligencer, Seattle, Wash.,.1 Aug. 1998: E6.

Personal Values And Ethics Of An Italian Essay

Values are defined as â€Å"the deepest beliefs and we sentiments we subscribe to†. Every person has values that they put into practice in their lives whether they realize this or not in other words we all apply values in our day-to-day lives both consciously and unconsciously. An individuals’ set of personal values guides him or her on how to live his or her life. Once these values have been implemented, they enable the implementer to achieve great things in life that they would otherwise not have been able to accomplish. Once an individual has implemented his or her personal values in his or her life, these values then energizes the individual and enables him or her to tackle issues that were previously seen as impossible in other words personal values allow an individual achieve what they dream of. Once a person has identified the values that are important to them they go further and develop strategies to be used in implementation of these values. Upon implementation, these values are said to be able to work wonders in a person’s life in that the person now has a direction in life that guides them in making decisions that are in line with their overall aim. When one identifies a mission philosophy or belief that is meaningful to them in their lives, then that becomes their value. There many categories of values whereby they are ranked as either commonplace or those that is special and psychological. An individual day-to-day life including relations with others and how they approach their work is determined by their personal values. These values are the ones that determine the success of an individual in whether action they dedicate themselves to. Once they are applied it becomes very easy for the person to excel in the workplace and personal life. They are said to have the ability to multiply the impact of an action and in turn the consequences of the act. Italians are very religious people and the biggest percentages of them are Catholics. They follow the tenets of the Catholic Church very strictly. They are very emphatic on the importance of the family and especially the mothers. They come together as families as often as possible and even conduct their businesses as a family. The men are always seen as the bread winners in the house and the women are to take care of the family in all ways. Being brought up in such a setting has shaped my values in to confirming with a lot of the traditional that I found when I was born and grew up in. In 1884, the Italian Republic made an agreement with the Vatican regarding religious education in schools. There was then a provision made that ensured that there would be religious teachings offered in all schools that are below the university level (http://www. beginningwithi. com). Since Italy is a catholic state, it therefore means that these teachings are mostly catholic in nature. This therefore ensures that all Italians who are born and bred in Italy have an option of getting religious teachings in school. It was however noted that not everyone is a catholic or even a Christian. This then led to need to make these teachings optional to those who wanted to learn. Those whose parents did not want them to learn had an option of refusing to allow their children not to learn. Since my family was and still is a very strict catholic follower, I never had the option to even refuse to attend these lessons. In fact this was seen as an added advantage since I would be able to learn more about Jesus Christ and the Virgin Mary alongside the various teachings found in the bible. This would in the long run make me a better Christian and it actually did. Having grown up in a catholic family and also an extended one made my personal values to develop in a way that enables me cope with then. My personal values include success commitment fairness faith family feeling hard work and tolerance. The church I have grown up in has taught me to have faith in what I do and in god and hop that all will end well. This has sustained me all through my life especially at times when I feel emotional and psychologically unstable. At these moments I prefer to go to church and say prayers to calm me down. It has also taught me to be committed and this is what has enabled me to hold one position for 15 years in the same store. In Italian culture, one tends to live with the extended family and this is expected of all people. It is customary for the grandparents to care for their grandchildren which they d thus one has to cope with having a house full of relatives and this makes one tolerant. This has gone a long way in enabling me work with other employees without losing my temper. In under standing their weaknesses I am able to correct them without causing the formation of negative altitude towards me and weakness I am able to correct them without causing the formation of negative altitudes towards the job and me. When correcting their mistakes, I do so just as I would if it were my family member and this makes them feel appreciated and thus workers are motivated. I am currently studying for my B. S in criminal justice. The desire to study this course was prompted by my belief in fairness. I have a very strong conviction that everybody of what his or her previous life has been like. As a Christian I believe that any person can change given the chance. It is also true that there are quite a number of people who are wrongfully accused and convicted and it is necessary to correct such wrongs. By learning the different theories propounded in the course study. I can be able to use them in my workplace and in my day-to-day life to blame where it his not due I avoid unnecessary confrontations with other people. In my 15 years of working at the Vons Grocery store, I have met a number of personalities made a positive impact in my life. Michelle Valverda and Shielha Mosley. These people have taught me how to deal with other employees in order to maximize their output. They have taught me the value of success. It has been clarified in my mind what success really means and not just in monetary terms but also in emotional, psychological and physical well-being. These two people have reminded me the importance of leading a round life without neglecting any part of my life since all are important and are required in measuring the success of an individual. When I joined college to study for the criminal justice course, I met other people who added to my list of personal values. One of them is Ian Barrimond who is a fellow student. He has strengthened my value of tolerance because he is becoming more enjoyable when I do not keep getting angry with people for minor mistakes. Furthermore Ian is really committed to his studies and thus has introduced a new value to my life that is commitments. Apart from attending college he has a very demanding job that does not leave him with much time for himself yet he still manages to find time to dedicate his studies. My teacher is also a major influence to my list of values since he is always insisting on the necessary of hard work. Steven Fraitas insists that only by hard work can one be able to achieve what they want from life. The other major influences in my life are my parents who have always insisted on the family unity. They have never allowed my siblings and I to be on bad terms with each other for long and they have always ensured that any problem that crops up among us is quickly resolved before it goes too far. Also they have used the many family gatherings that we hold to invite all of us including the members of the extended family to make sure that we all remain close. None of us feels like a stranger or outsider because we have never been allowed to have time to drift apart to a point of becoming strangers to each other emotionally. This has made me become even more committed to my own family in the hope that it will be as unified as the family that I grew up in. I work hard so as to provide for my family and make sure that they live as comfortably as I can make them. This is encompassed in the value of family feeling. In Italian culture, one tends to live with their parents long after they have reached the age of maturity (Giannotti E. & Rocchi R. 2004). It has been argued by some people that this makes them vulnerable to emotional and mental instability. I beg to differ with this conclusion because instead of destabilizing me this has made me a stronger person in aspects in life. There is an assumption that we should all be married at a certain age but by waiting until the right moment allows one to be able to choose the right partner in life. This is important because in the catholic church one is not allowed to divorce and thus it is necessary to choose someone who one will be able to stay with for the rest of their lives. I am among those people who lived with their parents long after the time that is set as standard for people to move out of their parent’s house. I can testify to the benefits that I reaped from this. Since almost all my brothers and sisters were also living with my parents, we were able to develop our relationship into our adulthood. Not only have we remained close with my brothers and sisters but also with my parents. Since I did not start my family until I was old enough to appreciate what I needed in a spouse, I am then able to treat my spouse the way it has always been in the Italian culture. I was also able to learn a lot from my parents on how to live in peace and harmony in the same house with your spouse.

Over Allocated Resources - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 591 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2019/10/10 Did you like this example? Over allocation of resources refers to the process in which resources are assigned excessively. In the field of information technology, the resources include software as well as hardware capacities for example data management, memory, and processing power. However, over allocation can also be defined as resources in which a lot of work or job have been assigned, a good example of such situation is whereby a processor tackles an excessive number of work commands. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Over Allocated Resources" essay for you Create order Information technology experts employ tools as well as strategies like resource leveling to manage or cope up with over allocation challenges, such as working overtime in jobs or irregular piling of resource in networks. A good example of over allocation of resources that require a good care of adjustment is in the process of designing software base. When considering virtualization system, the hardware is divided into virtual elements. Resources such as processing power as well as memory have to be carefully allocated or assigned. Any divergence on either way will place a lot of demands on a single point on the system or give rise to inefficiency in a certain processor. The information technology experts need to pay a lot of attention to a system and look closely to ascertain whether the assignment is accurate as well as effective. Suitable practice approaches utilized to deal with over allocation of resources. Some of the approaches that can be used to handle over the allocation of resources are as follows: Allowing changes in the activity relationships. This is done by adopting the activity`s reasoning, and systematic relationships in such a way that the activities carried out in parallel are also carried out in a systematic manner. This is the direct approach, but it mainly causes the lengthening of the program or plan, usually if the activities concerned are long the serious path. Increasing activity time to minimize units. In this approach, you may ask your resource or the system to over working on an activity up to 12hours per day. To minimize the required day to day efforts, increase its duration so that the daily efforts needed will become 8hours daily. In this way, you would have solved your problem. However, the project will become longer. Exchange one resource for another. If you do not require a specialist or profession to perform your activities, you can exchange your specialist for another resource. This approach will only be applicable if the second resource has knowledge and skills capable of handling the business. In this manner, the event, as well as the schedule, may be delayed since the resource will require humble duration to achieve full-scale productivity. My approach to their resolution. Find an activity with available time. This approach allows a task to start later in the schedule but if the work can be partitioned equally between the resources, assign another resource to the activity as well as using Microsoft office project, you can assign or distribute work evenly to each resource. Communicate assignment changes. Use program changes to log the information about the variations that you might have observed to maximize the resource activity. Employing such notes is very significant when you are following the initial progress, closing the project as well as collecting data for future project Conclusion. Over allocation of resources is a common phenomenon in many organizations and is faced by many managers. Perhaps, in a real sense, a part-time achievement is needed when the estimate requires a full-time feat. Allocating resources to achieve a realistic plan is the primary function of a project manager.